Insuficiencia cardiaca con fracción de eyección reducida: interrogantes comunes en la práctica médica
Palabras clave:
insuficiencia cardíaca, insuficiencia cardíaca sistólica, , fracción de eyección ventricular, volumen sistólico
Resumen
Introducción: la insuficiencia cardíaca es un síndrome clínico complejo con síntomas y signos que resultan de cualquier alteración estructural o funcional del llenado ventricular o la eyección de sangre. La prevalencia de insuficiencia cardiaca exhibe una variabilidad de 0,2% a 17,7% en naciones industrializadas
Materiales y métodos: se realizó una revisión utilizando base de datos como: PubMed, Scopus, Embase, Cochrane Library, Scielo, incluyendo estudios de tipo observacionales, artículos de revisión, ensayos clínicos, y guías clínicas sobre el manejo de pacientes con insuficiencia cardiaca con fracción de eyección reducida.
Resultados y conclusiones: la terapia en la insuficiencia cardíaca con fracción de eyección ventricular izquierda (FEVI) reducida busca contrarrestar los mecanismos deletéreos contrarreguladores. La disfunción sistólica del ventrículo izquierdo implica una FEVI ≤ 40%, mientras que la insuficiencia cardíaca se diagnostica por síntomas y signos de congestión, no solo por la FEVI. Los péptidos natriuréticos ayudan en el diagnóstico, pero niveles elevados pueden tener causas no cardíacas. La hipotensión arterial no contraindica el inicio del tratamiento farmacológico. La lesión renal aguda en estos pacientes indica un mal pronóstico, pero los diuréticos de asa de Henle pueden mejorar la función renal. Durante exacerbaciones agudas por insuficiencia cardiaca, no se deben suspender los medicamentos recomendados, ya que su continuidad reduce la mortalidad y las readmisiones. Terapias como la ivabradina, digoxina, hidralazina e isosorbida dinitrato no han demostrado beneficios en insuficiencia cardiaca y FEVI reducida. Sin embargo, vericiguat y omecamtiv mecarbil obtuvieron resultados significativos en reducción de muertes y hospitalizaciones por IC. Además, se recomienda el desfibrilador automático implantable para prevenir muerte cardíaca súbita. El uso de soporte mecánico circulatorio y el trasplante cardiaco debe ser considera en pacientes con IC avanzada que no responde adecuadamente al tratamiento farmacológico.
Citas
1. Heidenreich PA, Bozkurt B, Aguilar D, Allen LA, Byun JJ, Colvin MM, et al. 2022 AHA/ACC/HFSA guideline for the management of heart failure: Executive summary: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Joint Committee on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2023 Feb 10];145(18): e876–94. Available from: https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001062. doi: https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001062
2. Emmons-Bell S, Johnson C, Roth G. Prevalence, incidence and survival of heart failure: a systematic review. Heart [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2023 Feb 10];108(17):1351–60. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35042750. doi: 10.1136/heartjnl-2021-320131
3. Konstam MA, Abboud FM. Ejection Fraction: Misunderstood and overrated (Changing the Paradigm in Categorizing Heart Failure). Circulation [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2023 Feb 10];135(8):717–9. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28223323. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.116.025795
4. Hartupee J, Mann DL. Neurohormonal activation in heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. Nat Rev Cardiol [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2023 Feb 10]; 14(1):30–8. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27708278. doi: 10.1038/nrcardio.2016.163
5. Schwinger RHG. Pathophysiology of heart failure. Cardiovasc Diagn Ther [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2023 Feb 10];11(1):263–76. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33708498. doi: 10.21037/cdt-20-302
6. Murphy SP, Ibrahim NE, Januzzi JL Jr. Heart failure with reduced ejection fraction: A review. JAMA. 2020;324(5):488–504. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.10262
7. Goetze JP, Bruneau BG, Ramos HR, Ogawa T, de Bold MK, de Bold AJ. Cardiac natriuretic peptides. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2020;17(11):698–717. doi: 10.1038/s41569-020-0381-0
8. Lopaschuk GD, Verma S. Mechanisms of cardiovascular benefits of sodium glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors: A state-of-the-art review. JACC Basic Transl Sci [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2023 Feb 10];5(6):632–44. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32613148. doi: 10.1016/j.jacbts.2020.02.004
9. Januzzi JL Jr, Prescott MF, Butler J, Felker GM, Maisel AS, McCague K, et al. Association of change in N-Terminal Pro–B-Type natriuretic peptide following initiation of sacubitril-valsartan treatment with cardiac structure and function in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. JAMA [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2023 Feb 10];322(11):1085–95. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31475295. doi: 10.1001/jama.2019.12821
10. Ahmad T, Miller PE, McCullough M, Desai NR, Riello R, Psotka M, et al. Why has positive inotropy failed in chronic heart failure? Lessons from prior inotrope trials. Eur J Heart Fail [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2023 Feb 10];21(9):1064–78. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31407860. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.1557
11. Bozkurt B, Coats AJ, Tsutsui H, Abdelhamid M, Adamopoulos S, Albert N, et al. Universal Definition and Classification of Heart Failure: A Report of the Heart Failure Society of America, Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology, Japanese Heart Failure Society and Writing Committee of the Universal Definition of Heart Failure. J Card Fail [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2023 Feb 10]; S1071-9164(21):00050-6. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33663906. doi: 10.1016/j.cardfail.2021.01.022
12. Pfeffer MA. The Survival and Ventricular Enlargement (SAVE) study: rationale and perspective. Herz. 1993; 18 (Suppl 1):430–5
13. McMurray JJV, Docherty KF. Insights into foundational therapies for heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. Clin Cardiol [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2023 Feb 10];45 (Suppl 1): S26–S30. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35789017. doi: 10.1002/clc.23847
14. McMurray JJV, Packer M, Desai AS, Gong J, Lefkowitz MP, Rizkala AR, et al. Angiotensin-neprilysin inhibition versus enalapril in heart failure. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2023 Feb 10];371(11):993–1004. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25176015. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1409077
15. McDonagh TA, Metra M, Adamo M, Gardner RS, Baumbach A, Böhm M, et al. 2021 ESC guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure: Developed by the Task Force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). With the special contribution of the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the ESC. Eur J Heart Fail [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2023 Feb 12] ;24(1):4-131. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35083827. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.2333
16. Forrester JS, Diamond G, Chatterjee K, Swan HJ. Medical therapy of acute myocardial infarction by application of hemodynamic subsets (second of two parts). N Engl J Med. 1976; 295(25):1404–13. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197612162952505
17. Nohria A, Tsang SW, Fang JC, Lewis EF, Jarcho JA, Mudge GH, et al. Clinical assessment identifies hemodynamic profiles that predict outcomes in patients admitted with heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol [Internet]. 2003 [cited 2023 Feb 12]; 41(10):1797–804. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12767667. doi: 10.1016/s0735-1097(03)00309-7
18. Thibodeau JT, Drazner MH. The role of the clinical examination in patients with heart failure. JACC Heart Fail [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Feb 12]; 6(7):543–51. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29885957. doi: 10.1016/j.jchf.2018.04.005
19. Maw AM, Hassanin A, Ho PM, McInnes MDF, Moss A, Juarez-Colunga E, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of point-of-care lung ultrasonography and chest radiography in adults with symptoms suggestive of acute decompensated heart failure: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Netw Open [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2023 Feb 12]; 2(3): e190703. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30874784. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.0703
20. Chiu L, Jairam MP, Chow R, Chiu N, Shen M, Alhassan A, et al. Meta-analysis of point-of-care lung ultrasonography versus chest radiography in adults with symptoms of acute decompensated heart failure. Am J Cardiol. 2022; 174:89–95. doi: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2022.03.022
21. Rola P, Miralles-Aguiar F, Argaiz E, Beaubien-Souligny W, Haycock K, Karimov T, et al. Clinical applications of the venous excess ultrasound (VExUS) score: conceptual review and case series. Ultrasound J [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2023 Feb 12];13(1):32. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34146184. doi: 10.1186/s13089-021-00232-8
22. Torres-Arrese M, Mata-Martínez A, Luordo-Tedesco D, García-Casasola G, Alonso-González R, Montero-Hernández E, et al. Usefulness of systemic venous ultrasound protocols in the prognosis of heart failure patients: Results from a prospective multicentric study. J Clin Med [Internet]. 2023 [cited 2023 Mar 12];12(4):1281. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36835816. doi: 10.3390/jcm12041281
23. McDonagh TA, Metra M, Adamo M, Gardner RS, Baumbach A, Böhm M, et al. 2021 ESC guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure: Developed by the task force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) with the special contribution of the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the ESC. Eur Heart J [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2023 Mar 12];42(36):3599–726. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34447992. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehab368
24. Felker GM, Anstrom KJ, Adams KF, Ezekowitz JA, Fiuzat M, Houston-Miller N, et al. Effect of natriuretic peptide-guided therapy on hospitalization or cardiovascular mortality in high-risk patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2023 Mar 12]; 318(8):713–20. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28829876. doi: 10.1001/jama.2017.10565
25. Mozaffarian D, Benjamin EJ, Go AS, Arnett DK, Blaha MJ, Cushman M, et al. Executive summary: Heart disease and stroke statistics--2016 update: A report from the American Heart Association. Circulation [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2023 Mar 12]; 133(4):447–54. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26811276. doi: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000366
26. Greene SJ, Fonarow GC, DeVore AD, Sharma PP, Vaduganathan M, Albert NM, et al. Titration of medical therapy for heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. J Am Coll Cardiol [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2023 Mar 12]; 73(19):2365–83. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30844480. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2019.02.015
27. Greene SJ, Butler J, Albert NM, DeVore AD, Sharma PP, Duffy CI, et al. Medical therapy for heart failure with reduced ejection fraction: The CHAMP-HF registry. J Am Coll Cardiol [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 12];72(4):351–66. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30025570. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2018.04.070
28. Savarese G, Bodegard J, Norhammar A, Sartipy P, Thuresson M, Cowie MR, et al. Heart failure drug titration, discontinuation, mortality and heart failure hospitalization risk: a multinational observational study (US, UK and Sweden). Eur J Heart Fail [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2023 Mar 12];23(9):1499–511. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34132001. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.2271
29. Khan MS, Butler J, Greene SJ. Simultaneous or rapid sequence initiation of medical therapies for heart failure: seeking to avoid the case of ‘too little, too late’. Eur J Heart Fail [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2023 Mar 12];23(9):1514–7. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ejhf.2311. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/ejhf.2311
30. Rosano GMC, Moura B, Metra M, Böhm M, Bauersachs J, Ben Gal T, et al. Patient profiling in heart failure for tailoring medical therapy. A consensus document of the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur J Heart Fail [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2023 Mar 12];23(6):872–81. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33932268. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.2206
31. Maddox TM, Januzzi Jr JL, Allen LA, Breathett K, Butler J, Davis LL, et al. 2021 update to the 2017 ACC expert consensus decision pathway for optimization of heart failure treatment: Answers to 10 pivotal issues about heart failure with reduced ejection fraction: A report of the American College of Cardiology Solution Set Oversight Committee. J Am Coll Cardiol [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2023 Mar 12];77(6):772–810. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33446410. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2020.11.022
32. Packer M, McMurray JJV. Rapid evidence-based sequencing of foundational drugs for heart failure and a reduced ejection fraction. Eur J Heart Fail [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2023 Mar 12]; 23(6):882–94. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33704874. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.2149
33. Packer M, Coats AJS, Fowler MB, Katus HA, Krum H, Mohacsi P, et al. Effect of carvedilol on survival in severe chronic heart failure. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2001 [cited 2023 Mar 12];344(22):1651–8. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11386263. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200105313442201
34. Volterrani M, Cice G, Caminiti G, Vitale C, D’Isa S, Perrone Filardi P, et al. Effect of carvedilol, ivabradine or their combination on exercise capacity in patients with heart failure (the CARVIVA HF trial). Int J Cardiol. 2011; 151(2):218–24. doi: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2011.06.098
35. Mullens W, Damman K, Testani JM, Martens P, Mueller Ch, Lassus J, et al. Evaluation of kidney function throughout the heart failure trajectory – a position statement from the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur J Heart Fail [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2023 Mar 12];22(4):584–603. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31908120. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.1697
36. Forman DE, Butler J, Wang Y, Abraham WT, O’Connor CM, Gottlieb SS, et al. Incidence, predictors at admission, and impact of worsening renal function among patients hospitalized with heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol [Internet]. 2004 [cited 2023 Mar 12];43(1):61–7. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14715185. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2003.07.031
37. Löfman I, Szummer K, Dahlström U, Jernberg T, Lund LH. Associations with and prognostic impact of chronic kidney disease in heart failure with preserved, mid-range, and reduced ejection fraction. Eur J Heart Fail [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2023 Mar 12];19(12):1606–14. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28371075. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.821
38. Heywood JT, Fonarow GC, Costanzo MR, Mathur VS, Wigneswaran JR, Wynne J, et al. High prevalence of renal dysfunction and its impact on outcome in 118,465 patients hospitalized with acute decompensated heart failure: a report from the ADHERE database. J Card Fail. 2007;13(6):422–30. doi: 10.1016/j.cardfail.2007.03.011
39. Rastogi A, Fonarow GC. The cardiorenal connection in heart failure. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2008;10(3):190–7. doi: 10.1007/s11886-008-0033-1
40. Mullens W, Abrahams Z, Francis GS, Sokos G, Taylor DO, Starling RC, et al. Importance of venous congestion for worsening of renal function in advanced decompensated heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol [Internet]. 2009 [cited 2023 Mar 12];53(7):589–96. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19215833. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2008.05.068
41. Damman K, van Deursen VM, Navis G, Voors AA, van Veldhuisen DJ, Hillege HL. Increased central venous pressure is associated with impaired renal function and mortality in a broad spectrum of patients with cardiovascular disease. J Am Coll Cardiol [Internet]. 2009 [cited 2023 Mar 12];53(7):582–8. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19215832. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2008.08.080
42. Bozkurt B, Kamat IS. Worsening renal function in acute decompensated heart failure: A bad sign, or maybe not? Trans Am Clin Climatol Assoc [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2023 Mar 12]; 130:41–50. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31516163
43. Ronco C, Haapio M, House AA, Anavekar N, Bellomo R. Cardiorenal syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol [Internet]. 2008 [cited 2023 Mar 12];52(19):1527–39. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19007588. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2008.07.051
44. Firth JD, Raine AE, Ledingham JG. Raised venous pressure: a direct cause of renal sodium retention in oedema? Lancet. 1988;1(8593):1033–5. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(88)91851-x
45. Richards AM. Biomarkers in acute heart failure - cardiac and kidney. Card Fail Rev [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2023 Mar 12];1(2):107–11. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28785442. doi: 10.15420/cfr.2015.1.2.107
46. Metra M, Davison B, Bettari L, Sun H, Edwards Ch, Lazzarini V, et al. Is worsening renal function an ominous prognostic sign in patients with acute heart failure? The role of congestion and its interaction with renal function. Circ Heart Fail [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2023 Mar 12];5(1):54–62. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22167320. doi: 10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.111.963413
47. Ahmad T, Jackson K, Rao VS, Tang WHW, Brisco-Bacik MA, Chen HH, et al. Worsening renal function in patients with acute heart failure undergoing aggressive diuresis is not associated with tubular injury. Circulation [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 12];137(19):2016–28. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29352071. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.030112
48. Brisco-Bacik MA, Ter Maaten JM, Houser SR, Vedage NA, Rao V, Ahmad T, et al. Outcomes associated with a strategy of adjuvant metolazone or high-dose loop diuretics in acute decompensated heart failure: A propensity analysis. J Am Heart Assoc [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 12];7(18): e009149. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30371181. doi: 10.1161/JAHA.118.009149
49. Mullens W, Verbrugge FH, Nijst P, Martens P, Tartaglia K, Theunissen E, et al. Rationale and design of the ADVOR (Acetazolamide in Decompensated Heart Failure with Volume Overload) trial. Eur J Heart Fail [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Apr 15]; 20(11):1591-600. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30238574. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.1307
50.Strobeck JE, Feldschuh J, Miller WL. Heart failure outcomes with volume-guided management. JACC Heart Fail [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Apr 15]; 6(11):940-8. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30316941. doi: 10.1016/j.jchf.2018.06.017
51. Colin-Ramirez E, Ezekowitz JA. Salt in the diet in patients with heart failure: what to recommend. Curr Opin Cardiol. 2016; 31(2):196-203. doi: 10.1097/HCO.0000000000000253
52. Mullens W, Damman K, Harjola VP, Mebazaa A, Brunner-La Rocca HP, Martens P, et al. The use of diuretics in heart failure with congestion - a position statement from the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur J Heart Fail [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2023 Apr 15];21(2):137–55. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30600580. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.1369
53. Gilstrap LG, Fonarow GC, Desai AS, Liang L, Matsouaka R, DeVore AD, et al. Initiation, continuation, or withdrawal of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors/angiotensin receptor blockers and outcomes in patients hospitalized with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. J Am Heart Assoc [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2023 Apr 15];6(2): e004675. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28189999. doi: 10.1161/JAHA.116.004675
54. Savarese G, Kishi T, Vardeny O, Adamsson Eryd S, Bodegård J, Lund LH, et al. Heart failure drug treatment-inertia, titration, and discontinuation: A multinational observational study (EVOLUTION HF). JACC Heart Fail [Internet]. 2023 [cited 2023 Apr 15];11(1):1–14. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36202739. doi: 10.1016/j.jchf.2022.08.009
55. Baggish AL, Siebert U, Lainchbury JG, Cameron R, Anwaruddin S, Chen A, et al. A validated clinical and biochemical score for the diagnosis of acute heart failure: the ProBNP investigation of dyspnea in the Emergency Department (PRIDE) acute heart failure score. Am Heart J. 2006;151(1):48–54. doi: 10.1016/j.ahj.2005.02.031
56. Fonarow GC, Abraham WT, Albert NM, Stough WG, Gheorghiade M, Greenberg BH, et al. Influence of beta-blocker continuation or withdrawal on outcomes in patients hospitalized with heart failure: findings from the OPTIMIZE-HF program. J Am Coll Cardiol [Internet]. 2008 [cited 2023 Apr 15];52(3):190–9. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18617067. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2008.03.048
57. Velazquez EJ, Morrow DA, DeVore AD, Duffy CI, Ambrosy AP, McCague K, et al. Angiotensin-Neprilysin inhibition in acute decompensated heart failure. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2023 Apr 15];380(6):539–48. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30415601. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1812851
58. Bhatt DL, Szarek M, Steg PG, Cannon CP, Leiter LA, McGuire DK, et al. Sotagliflozin in patients with diabetes and recent worsening heart failure. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2023 Apr 15];384(2):117–28. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33200892. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2030183
59. Voors AA, Angermann CE, Teerlink JR, Collins SP, Kosiborod M, Biegus J, et al. The SGLT2 inhibitor empagliflozin in patients hospitalized for acute heart failure: a multinational randomized trial. Nat Med [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2023 Apr 15];28(3):568–74. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35228754. doi: 10.1038/s41591-021-01659-1
60. Mebazaa A, Davison B, Chioncel O, Cohen-Solal A, Diaz R, Filippatos G, et al. Safety, tolerability and efficacy of up-titration of guideline-directed medical therapies for acute heart failure (STRONG-HF): a multinational, open-label, randomised, trial. Lancet. 2022;400(10367):1938–52. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(22)02076-1
61. Halliday BP, Wassall R, Lota AS, Khalique Z, Gregson J, Newsome S, et al. Withdrawal of pharmacological treatment for heart failure in patients with recovered dilated cardiomyopathy (TRED-HF): an open-label, pilot, randomised trial. Lancet [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2023 Apr 15];393(10166):61–73. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30429050. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32484-X
62. Böhm M, Borer J, Ford I, Gonzalez-Juanatey JR, Komajda M, Lopez-Sendon J, et al. Heart rate at baseline influences the effect of ivabradine on cardiovascular outcomes in chronic heart failure: analysis from the SHIFT study. Clin Res Cardiol. 2013;102(1):11–22. doi: 10.1007/s00392-012-0467-8
63. Mullens W, Dauw J, Martens P, Verbrugge FH, Nijst P, Meekers E, et al. Acetazolamide in acute decompensated heart failure with volume overload. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2023 Apr 15];387(13):1185–95. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36027559. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2203094
64. Armstrong PW, Pieske B, Anstrom KJ, Ezekowitz J, Hernandez AF, Butler J, et al. Vericiguat in patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2023 Apr 15];382(20):1883–93. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32222134. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1915928
65. Felker GM, Solomon SD, Claggett B, Diaz R, McMurray JJV, Metra M, et al. Assessment of omecamtiv mecarbil for the treatment of patients with severe heart failure: A post hoc analysis of data from the GALACTIC-HF randomized clinical trial. JAMA Cardiol [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2023 Apr 15];7(1):26–34. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34643642. doi: 10.1001/jamacardio.2021.4027
66. von Haehling S, Ebner N, Evertz R, Ponikowski P, Anker SD. Iron deficiency in heart failure: An overview. JACC Heart Fail [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2023 Apr 15]; 7(1):36–46. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30553903. doi: 10.1016/j.jchf.2018.07.015
67. Stone GW, Lindenfeld J, Abraham WT, Kar S, Lim DS, Mishell JM, et al. Transcatheter mitral-valve repair in patients with heart failure. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 12]; 379(24):2307-18. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30280640. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1806640
68. Marrouche NF, Brachmann J, Andresen D, Siebels J, Boersma L, Jordaens L, et al. Catheter ablation for atrial fibrillation with heart failure. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 12]; 378(5):417-27. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29385358. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1707855
69. Crespo-Leiro MG, Metra M, Lund LH, Milicic D, Costanzo MR, Filippatos G, et al. Advanced heart failure: a position statement of the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur J Heart Fail [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 12]; 20(11):1505–35. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29806100. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.1236
2. Emmons-Bell S, Johnson C, Roth G. Prevalence, incidence and survival of heart failure: a systematic review. Heart [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2023 Feb 10];108(17):1351–60. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35042750. doi: 10.1136/heartjnl-2021-320131
3. Konstam MA, Abboud FM. Ejection Fraction: Misunderstood and overrated (Changing the Paradigm in Categorizing Heart Failure). Circulation [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2023 Feb 10];135(8):717–9. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28223323. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.116.025795
4. Hartupee J, Mann DL. Neurohormonal activation in heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. Nat Rev Cardiol [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2023 Feb 10]; 14(1):30–8. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27708278. doi: 10.1038/nrcardio.2016.163
5. Schwinger RHG. Pathophysiology of heart failure. Cardiovasc Diagn Ther [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2023 Feb 10];11(1):263–76. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33708498. doi: 10.21037/cdt-20-302
6. Murphy SP, Ibrahim NE, Januzzi JL Jr. Heart failure with reduced ejection fraction: A review. JAMA. 2020;324(5):488–504. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.10262
7. Goetze JP, Bruneau BG, Ramos HR, Ogawa T, de Bold MK, de Bold AJ. Cardiac natriuretic peptides. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2020;17(11):698–717. doi: 10.1038/s41569-020-0381-0
8. Lopaschuk GD, Verma S. Mechanisms of cardiovascular benefits of sodium glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors: A state-of-the-art review. JACC Basic Transl Sci [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2023 Feb 10];5(6):632–44. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32613148. doi: 10.1016/j.jacbts.2020.02.004
9. Januzzi JL Jr, Prescott MF, Butler J, Felker GM, Maisel AS, McCague K, et al. Association of change in N-Terminal Pro–B-Type natriuretic peptide following initiation of sacubitril-valsartan treatment with cardiac structure and function in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. JAMA [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2023 Feb 10];322(11):1085–95. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31475295. doi: 10.1001/jama.2019.12821
10. Ahmad T, Miller PE, McCullough M, Desai NR, Riello R, Psotka M, et al. Why has positive inotropy failed in chronic heart failure? Lessons from prior inotrope trials. Eur J Heart Fail [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2023 Feb 10];21(9):1064–78. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31407860. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.1557
11. Bozkurt B, Coats AJ, Tsutsui H, Abdelhamid M, Adamopoulos S, Albert N, et al. Universal Definition and Classification of Heart Failure: A Report of the Heart Failure Society of America, Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology, Japanese Heart Failure Society and Writing Committee of the Universal Definition of Heart Failure. J Card Fail [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2023 Feb 10]; S1071-9164(21):00050-6. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33663906. doi: 10.1016/j.cardfail.2021.01.022
12. Pfeffer MA. The Survival and Ventricular Enlargement (SAVE) study: rationale and perspective. Herz. 1993; 18 (Suppl 1):430–5
13. McMurray JJV, Docherty KF. Insights into foundational therapies for heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. Clin Cardiol [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2023 Feb 10];45 (Suppl 1): S26–S30. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35789017. doi: 10.1002/clc.23847
14. McMurray JJV, Packer M, Desai AS, Gong J, Lefkowitz MP, Rizkala AR, et al. Angiotensin-neprilysin inhibition versus enalapril in heart failure. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2023 Feb 10];371(11):993–1004. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25176015. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1409077
15. McDonagh TA, Metra M, Adamo M, Gardner RS, Baumbach A, Böhm M, et al. 2021 ESC guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure: Developed by the Task Force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). With the special contribution of the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the ESC. Eur J Heart Fail [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2023 Feb 12] ;24(1):4-131. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35083827. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.2333
16. Forrester JS, Diamond G, Chatterjee K, Swan HJ. Medical therapy of acute myocardial infarction by application of hemodynamic subsets (second of two parts). N Engl J Med. 1976; 295(25):1404–13. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197612162952505
17. Nohria A, Tsang SW, Fang JC, Lewis EF, Jarcho JA, Mudge GH, et al. Clinical assessment identifies hemodynamic profiles that predict outcomes in patients admitted with heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol [Internet]. 2003 [cited 2023 Feb 12]; 41(10):1797–804. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12767667. doi: 10.1016/s0735-1097(03)00309-7
18. Thibodeau JT, Drazner MH. The role of the clinical examination in patients with heart failure. JACC Heart Fail [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Feb 12]; 6(7):543–51. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29885957. doi: 10.1016/j.jchf.2018.04.005
19. Maw AM, Hassanin A, Ho PM, McInnes MDF, Moss A, Juarez-Colunga E, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of point-of-care lung ultrasonography and chest radiography in adults with symptoms suggestive of acute decompensated heart failure: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Netw Open [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2023 Feb 12]; 2(3): e190703. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30874784. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.0703
20. Chiu L, Jairam MP, Chow R, Chiu N, Shen M, Alhassan A, et al. Meta-analysis of point-of-care lung ultrasonography versus chest radiography in adults with symptoms of acute decompensated heart failure. Am J Cardiol. 2022; 174:89–95. doi: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2022.03.022
21. Rola P, Miralles-Aguiar F, Argaiz E, Beaubien-Souligny W, Haycock K, Karimov T, et al. Clinical applications of the venous excess ultrasound (VExUS) score: conceptual review and case series. Ultrasound J [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2023 Feb 12];13(1):32. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34146184. doi: 10.1186/s13089-021-00232-8
22. Torres-Arrese M, Mata-Martínez A, Luordo-Tedesco D, García-Casasola G, Alonso-González R, Montero-Hernández E, et al. Usefulness of systemic venous ultrasound protocols in the prognosis of heart failure patients: Results from a prospective multicentric study. J Clin Med [Internet]. 2023 [cited 2023 Mar 12];12(4):1281. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36835816. doi: 10.3390/jcm12041281
23. McDonagh TA, Metra M, Adamo M, Gardner RS, Baumbach A, Böhm M, et al. 2021 ESC guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure: Developed by the task force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) with the special contribution of the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the ESC. Eur Heart J [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2023 Mar 12];42(36):3599–726. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34447992. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehab368
24. Felker GM, Anstrom KJ, Adams KF, Ezekowitz JA, Fiuzat M, Houston-Miller N, et al. Effect of natriuretic peptide-guided therapy on hospitalization or cardiovascular mortality in high-risk patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2023 Mar 12]; 318(8):713–20. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28829876. doi: 10.1001/jama.2017.10565
25. Mozaffarian D, Benjamin EJ, Go AS, Arnett DK, Blaha MJ, Cushman M, et al. Executive summary: Heart disease and stroke statistics--2016 update: A report from the American Heart Association. Circulation [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2023 Mar 12]; 133(4):447–54. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26811276. doi: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000366
26. Greene SJ, Fonarow GC, DeVore AD, Sharma PP, Vaduganathan M, Albert NM, et al. Titration of medical therapy for heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. J Am Coll Cardiol [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2023 Mar 12]; 73(19):2365–83. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30844480. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2019.02.015
27. Greene SJ, Butler J, Albert NM, DeVore AD, Sharma PP, Duffy CI, et al. Medical therapy for heart failure with reduced ejection fraction: The CHAMP-HF registry. J Am Coll Cardiol [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 12];72(4):351–66. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30025570. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2018.04.070
28. Savarese G, Bodegard J, Norhammar A, Sartipy P, Thuresson M, Cowie MR, et al. Heart failure drug titration, discontinuation, mortality and heart failure hospitalization risk: a multinational observational study (US, UK and Sweden). Eur J Heart Fail [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2023 Mar 12];23(9):1499–511. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34132001. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.2271
29. Khan MS, Butler J, Greene SJ. Simultaneous or rapid sequence initiation of medical therapies for heart failure: seeking to avoid the case of ‘too little, too late’. Eur J Heart Fail [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2023 Mar 12];23(9):1514–7. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ejhf.2311. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/ejhf.2311
30. Rosano GMC, Moura B, Metra M, Böhm M, Bauersachs J, Ben Gal T, et al. Patient profiling in heart failure for tailoring medical therapy. A consensus document of the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur J Heart Fail [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2023 Mar 12];23(6):872–81. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33932268. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.2206
31. Maddox TM, Januzzi Jr JL, Allen LA, Breathett K, Butler J, Davis LL, et al. 2021 update to the 2017 ACC expert consensus decision pathway for optimization of heart failure treatment: Answers to 10 pivotal issues about heart failure with reduced ejection fraction: A report of the American College of Cardiology Solution Set Oversight Committee. J Am Coll Cardiol [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2023 Mar 12];77(6):772–810. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33446410. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2020.11.022
32. Packer M, McMurray JJV. Rapid evidence-based sequencing of foundational drugs for heart failure and a reduced ejection fraction. Eur J Heart Fail [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2023 Mar 12]; 23(6):882–94. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33704874. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.2149
33. Packer M, Coats AJS, Fowler MB, Katus HA, Krum H, Mohacsi P, et al. Effect of carvedilol on survival in severe chronic heart failure. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2001 [cited 2023 Mar 12];344(22):1651–8. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11386263. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200105313442201
34. Volterrani M, Cice G, Caminiti G, Vitale C, D’Isa S, Perrone Filardi P, et al. Effect of carvedilol, ivabradine or their combination on exercise capacity in patients with heart failure (the CARVIVA HF trial). Int J Cardiol. 2011; 151(2):218–24. doi: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2011.06.098
35. Mullens W, Damman K, Testani JM, Martens P, Mueller Ch, Lassus J, et al. Evaluation of kidney function throughout the heart failure trajectory – a position statement from the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur J Heart Fail [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2023 Mar 12];22(4):584–603. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31908120. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.1697
36. Forman DE, Butler J, Wang Y, Abraham WT, O’Connor CM, Gottlieb SS, et al. Incidence, predictors at admission, and impact of worsening renal function among patients hospitalized with heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol [Internet]. 2004 [cited 2023 Mar 12];43(1):61–7. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14715185. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2003.07.031
37. Löfman I, Szummer K, Dahlström U, Jernberg T, Lund LH. Associations with and prognostic impact of chronic kidney disease in heart failure with preserved, mid-range, and reduced ejection fraction. Eur J Heart Fail [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2023 Mar 12];19(12):1606–14. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28371075. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.821
38. Heywood JT, Fonarow GC, Costanzo MR, Mathur VS, Wigneswaran JR, Wynne J, et al. High prevalence of renal dysfunction and its impact on outcome in 118,465 patients hospitalized with acute decompensated heart failure: a report from the ADHERE database. J Card Fail. 2007;13(6):422–30. doi: 10.1016/j.cardfail.2007.03.011
39. Rastogi A, Fonarow GC. The cardiorenal connection in heart failure. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2008;10(3):190–7. doi: 10.1007/s11886-008-0033-1
40. Mullens W, Abrahams Z, Francis GS, Sokos G, Taylor DO, Starling RC, et al. Importance of venous congestion for worsening of renal function in advanced decompensated heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol [Internet]. 2009 [cited 2023 Mar 12];53(7):589–96. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19215833. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2008.05.068
41. Damman K, van Deursen VM, Navis G, Voors AA, van Veldhuisen DJ, Hillege HL. Increased central venous pressure is associated with impaired renal function and mortality in a broad spectrum of patients with cardiovascular disease. J Am Coll Cardiol [Internet]. 2009 [cited 2023 Mar 12];53(7):582–8. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19215832. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2008.08.080
42. Bozkurt B, Kamat IS. Worsening renal function in acute decompensated heart failure: A bad sign, or maybe not? Trans Am Clin Climatol Assoc [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2023 Mar 12]; 130:41–50. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31516163
43. Ronco C, Haapio M, House AA, Anavekar N, Bellomo R. Cardiorenal syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol [Internet]. 2008 [cited 2023 Mar 12];52(19):1527–39. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19007588. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2008.07.051
44. Firth JD, Raine AE, Ledingham JG. Raised venous pressure: a direct cause of renal sodium retention in oedema? Lancet. 1988;1(8593):1033–5. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(88)91851-x
45. Richards AM. Biomarkers in acute heart failure - cardiac and kidney. Card Fail Rev [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2023 Mar 12];1(2):107–11. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28785442. doi: 10.15420/cfr.2015.1.2.107
46. Metra M, Davison B, Bettari L, Sun H, Edwards Ch, Lazzarini V, et al. Is worsening renal function an ominous prognostic sign in patients with acute heart failure? The role of congestion and its interaction with renal function. Circ Heart Fail [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2023 Mar 12];5(1):54–62. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22167320. doi: 10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.111.963413
47. Ahmad T, Jackson K, Rao VS, Tang WHW, Brisco-Bacik MA, Chen HH, et al. Worsening renal function in patients with acute heart failure undergoing aggressive diuresis is not associated with tubular injury. Circulation [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 12];137(19):2016–28. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29352071. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.030112
48. Brisco-Bacik MA, Ter Maaten JM, Houser SR, Vedage NA, Rao V, Ahmad T, et al. Outcomes associated with a strategy of adjuvant metolazone or high-dose loop diuretics in acute decompensated heart failure: A propensity analysis. J Am Heart Assoc [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 12];7(18): e009149. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30371181. doi: 10.1161/JAHA.118.009149
49. Mullens W, Verbrugge FH, Nijst P, Martens P, Tartaglia K, Theunissen E, et al. Rationale and design of the ADVOR (Acetazolamide in Decompensated Heart Failure with Volume Overload) trial. Eur J Heart Fail [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Apr 15]; 20(11):1591-600. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30238574. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.1307
50.Strobeck JE, Feldschuh J, Miller WL. Heart failure outcomes with volume-guided management. JACC Heart Fail [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Apr 15]; 6(11):940-8. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30316941. doi: 10.1016/j.jchf.2018.06.017
51. Colin-Ramirez E, Ezekowitz JA. Salt in the diet in patients with heart failure: what to recommend. Curr Opin Cardiol. 2016; 31(2):196-203. doi: 10.1097/HCO.0000000000000253
52. Mullens W, Damman K, Harjola VP, Mebazaa A, Brunner-La Rocca HP, Martens P, et al. The use of diuretics in heart failure with congestion - a position statement from the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur J Heart Fail [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2023 Apr 15];21(2):137–55. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30600580. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.1369
53. Gilstrap LG, Fonarow GC, Desai AS, Liang L, Matsouaka R, DeVore AD, et al. Initiation, continuation, or withdrawal of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors/angiotensin receptor blockers and outcomes in patients hospitalized with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. J Am Heart Assoc [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2023 Apr 15];6(2): e004675. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28189999. doi: 10.1161/JAHA.116.004675
54. Savarese G, Kishi T, Vardeny O, Adamsson Eryd S, Bodegård J, Lund LH, et al. Heart failure drug treatment-inertia, titration, and discontinuation: A multinational observational study (EVOLUTION HF). JACC Heart Fail [Internet]. 2023 [cited 2023 Apr 15];11(1):1–14. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36202739. doi: 10.1016/j.jchf.2022.08.009
55. Baggish AL, Siebert U, Lainchbury JG, Cameron R, Anwaruddin S, Chen A, et al. A validated clinical and biochemical score for the diagnosis of acute heart failure: the ProBNP investigation of dyspnea in the Emergency Department (PRIDE) acute heart failure score. Am Heart J. 2006;151(1):48–54. doi: 10.1016/j.ahj.2005.02.031
56. Fonarow GC, Abraham WT, Albert NM, Stough WG, Gheorghiade M, Greenberg BH, et al. Influence of beta-blocker continuation or withdrawal on outcomes in patients hospitalized with heart failure: findings from the OPTIMIZE-HF program. J Am Coll Cardiol [Internet]. 2008 [cited 2023 Apr 15];52(3):190–9. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18617067. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2008.03.048
57. Velazquez EJ, Morrow DA, DeVore AD, Duffy CI, Ambrosy AP, McCague K, et al. Angiotensin-Neprilysin inhibition in acute decompensated heart failure. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2023 Apr 15];380(6):539–48. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30415601. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1812851
58. Bhatt DL, Szarek M, Steg PG, Cannon CP, Leiter LA, McGuire DK, et al. Sotagliflozin in patients with diabetes and recent worsening heart failure. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2023 Apr 15];384(2):117–28. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33200892. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2030183
59. Voors AA, Angermann CE, Teerlink JR, Collins SP, Kosiborod M, Biegus J, et al. The SGLT2 inhibitor empagliflozin in patients hospitalized for acute heart failure: a multinational randomized trial. Nat Med [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2023 Apr 15];28(3):568–74. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35228754. doi: 10.1038/s41591-021-01659-1
60. Mebazaa A, Davison B, Chioncel O, Cohen-Solal A, Diaz R, Filippatos G, et al. Safety, tolerability and efficacy of up-titration of guideline-directed medical therapies for acute heart failure (STRONG-HF): a multinational, open-label, randomised, trial. Lancet. 2022;400(10367):1938–52. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(22)02076-1
61. Halliday BP, Wassall R, Lota AS, Khalique Z, Gregson J, Newsome S, et al. Withdrawal of pharmacological treatment for heart failure in patients with recovered dilated cardiomyopathy (TRED-HF): an open-label, pilot, randomised trial. Lancet [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2023 Apr 15];393(10166):61–73. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30429050. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32484-X
62. Böhm M, Borer J, Ford I, Gonzalez-Juanatey JR, Komajda M, Lopez-Sendon J, et al. Heart rate at baseline influences the effect of ivabradine on cardiovascular outcomes in chronic heart failure: analysis from the SHIFT study. Clin Res Cardiol. 2013;102(1):11–22. doi: 10.1007/s00392-012-0467-8
63. Mullens W, Dauw J, Martens P, Verbrugge FH, Nijst P, Meekers E, et al. Acetazolamide in acute decompensated heart failure with volume overload. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2023 Apr 15];387(13):1185–95. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36027559. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2203094
64. Armstrong PW, Pieske B, Anstrom KJ, Ezekowitz J, Hernandez AF, Butler J, et al. Vericiguat in patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2023 Apr 15];382(20):1883–93. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32222134. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1915928
65. Felker GM, Solomon SD, Claggett B, Diaz R, McMurray JJV, Metra M, et al. Assessment of omecamtiv mecarbil for the treatment of patients with severe heart failure: A post hoc analysis of data from the GALACTIC-HF randomized clinical trial. JAMA Cardiol [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2023 Apr 15];7(1):26–34. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34643642. doi: 10.1001/jamacardio.2021.4027
66. von Haehling S, Ebner N, Evertz R, Ponikowski P, Anker SD. Iron deficiency in heart failure: An overview. JACC Heart Fail [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2023 Apr 15]; 7(1):36–46. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30553903. doi: 10.1016/j.jchf.2018.07.015
67. Stone GW, Lindenfeld J, Abraham WT, Kar S, Lim DS, Mishell JM, et al. Transcatheter mitral-valve repair in patients with heart failure. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 12]; 379(24):2307-18. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30280640. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1806640
68. Marrouche NF, Brachmann J, Andresen D, Siebels J, Boersma L, Jordaens L, et al. Catheter ablation for atrial fibrillation with heart failure. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 12]; 378(5):417-27. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29385358. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1707855
69. Crespo-Leiro MG, Metra M, Lund LH, Milicic D, Costanzo MR, Filippatos G, et al. Advanced heart failure: a position statement of the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur J Heart Fail [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 12]; 20(11):1505–35. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29806100. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.1236
